mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment

1: Map of the Mamluk Sultanate, 1317 CE Author: User "Ro4444" Source: Wikimedia Commons License: CC BY-SA 4.0. [151] The process was not formalized and the electoral body was never defined, but typically consisted of the emirs and mamluks of whatever Mamluk faction held sway; usurpations of the throne by rival factions were relatively common. Mamluk Sultanate, 1317 CE Illustration by Ro4444 published on 13 September 2018 Download Full Size Image A map indicating the territory of the Mamluk Sultanate based in Cairo, 1317 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons. [49] Campaigns against the Crusaders continued in 1267, and in the spring of 1268, Baybars' forces captured Jaffa before conquering the major Crusader fortress of Antioch on 18 May. [14] Mamluk regiments constituted the backbone of Egypt's military under Ayyubid rule in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, beginning with Sultan Saladin (r.11741193) who replaced the Fatimids' black African infantry with mamluks. [208][209] The decoration of monuments also became more elaborate over time, with stone-carving and colored marble paneling and mosaics (including ablaq) replacing stucco as the most dominant architectural decoration. Between 1688 and 1755, Mamluk beys, allied with Bedouin and factions within the Ottoman garrison, deposed no fewer than thirty-four governors. [45] During his early reign and through heavy financial expense, Baybars rebuilt and stringently trained the Mamluk army, which grew from 10,000 cavalry to 40,000, with a 4,000-strong royal guard at its core. Mamluk Sultanate. They executed another brother of the two in Cairo and at Nasr Gate they hoisted the heads of the 2 brothers. Source: Ro4444, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. Tensions between the Mamluks and Ayyubid leadership came to a head during the Seventh Crusade, an attack on Damietta orchestrated by French King Louis IX. The iqta system was inherited from the Ayyubids and further organized under the Mamluks to fit their military needs. [139] Bedouin tribes were also a major source of the Mamluk cavalry's Arabian horses. [201] The production of high-quality paper at this time also allowed for pages to be larger, which in turn encouraged artists to elaborate new motifs and designs to fill these larger formats. Mamluk history is generally divided into the Turkic or Bahri period (12501382) and the Circassian or Burji period (13821517), called after the predominant ethnicity or corps of the ruling Mamluks during these respective eras.[5][6][7][8][9]. [212][213] Domes also transitioned from wooden or brick structures, sometimes of bulbous shape, to pointed stone domes with complex geometric or arabesque motifs carved into their outer surfaces. [63] While the Salihi mamluks were typically Kipchak Turks, Qalawun diversified mamluk ranks purchasing numerous non-Turks, particularly Circassians, forming out of them the Burji regiment. The lower-ranking emirs also had their own corps, which were akin to private armies. Best study tips and tricks for your exams. The Mamluks excelled in warfare, forcing the Mongol invasion through the Middle East and into Egypt to a screeching halt; on another occasion, they captured the French king during the 7th Crusade and ransomed him back to his country. The Mamluks defeated the Mongolian Ilkhanate on multiple occasions, exhibiting their martial power and leading to a peace treaty in the 14th century. The reign of the Mamluk Sultanate can be divided into two main periods, the Bahri and Burji regimes, characterized by the predominated ethnic culture during each regime; Turkic during the Bahri period (1250-1382) and Circassian during the Burji period (1382-1517). [52] In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in 1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of Aydhab. [199] The Mamluks themselves, as former slaves who rose through the ranks by their own efforts, were status-conscious patrons who commissioned luxury objects marked with emblems of their ownership. [98] Faraj was able to hold onto power during this turbulent period, which in addition to Timur's devastating raids, the rise of Turkic tribes in Jazira and attempts by Barquq's emirs to topple Faraj, also saw a famine in Egypt in 1403, a severe plague in 1405 and a Bedouin revolt that virtually ended the Mamluks' hold over Upper Egypt between 1401 and 1413. Trade continued nonetheless and despite papal restrictions on trade with the Muslims during the Crusades. They were successful in combat, beating them at the Battle of Ain Jalut and the Battle of Homs. [143] The Mamluk leadership in Syria, weakened by the losses of the Black Plague, was unable to quell the Bedouin through military expeditions, so they resolved to assassinate the sheikhs of the tribes. Free and expert-verified textbook solutions. After Aybak learned that Aydughdi was plotting to topple him and recognize an-Nasir Yusuf as Ayyubid sultan, which would likely leave Aydughdi in virtual control of Egypt, Aybak had Aydughdi imprisoned in Alexandria in 1254 or 1255. The Mamluk Sultanate was a state that controlled Egypt, Palestine, and Syria from 1250 to 1517. Drought's effects on the population slowed the Ottoman Empire's expansion in the 16th century. [140], Sultans Baybars and Qalawun, and the Syrian viceroys of an-Nasir Muhammad during his first two reigns, emirs Salar and Baybars II, were averse to granting Bedouin sheikhs iqtaat, and when they did, the iqtaat were of low quality. Create flashcards in notes completely automatically. [50], Baybars initiated a more aggressive policy than his predecessors toward the Christian Nubian kingdom of Makuria on Egypt's southern border. [142] Competition over iqtaat and the post of amir al-arab (chief commander of the Bedouin) among the Bedouin tribes of Syria, particularly the Al Fadl, led to conflict and rebellion among the tribes, leading to mass bloodshed in Syria in the aftermath of an-Nasir Muhammad's death. [145] The Bedouin were ultimately purged from Upper and Lower Egypt by the campaigns of Emir Shaykhu in 1353. [90] Nonetheless, in the following year, Barquq toppled as-Salih Hajji with the backing of Yalbugha's mamluks and assumed the sultanate, adopting the title of Baybars, "al-Malik az-Zahir". Earn points, unlock badges and level up while studying. [171] The Mamluks introduced greater centralization over the economy by organizing the state bureaucracy, particularly in Cairo (Damascus and Aleppo already had organized bureaucracies), and the Mamluk military hierarchy and its associated iqta system. [111][113], The ruling military elite of the sultanate was exclusive to those of mamluk background, with rare exceptions. [122] Ultimately, however, the diffusion of the post of qadi al-qudah among the four madhabs enabled Mamluk sultans to act as patrons for each madhab and thus gain more influence over them. In 1323, the two parties signed a peace treaty. [176] Iqtaat were a central component of the Mamluk power structure. The Mamluk Sultanate was founded in 1250 by the Mamluk commander Qutuz. [45], With Bahri power in Egypt and Muslim Syria consolidated by 1265, Baybars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing Arsuf in 1265, and Halba and Arqa in 1266. Influences from the Syrian region, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends. [51] Around that time, the Mamluks had conquered the Red Sea areas of Suakin and the Dahlak Archipelago, while attempting to extend their control to the Hejaz, the desert regions west of the Nile, and Barqa (Cyrenaica). [93] Barquq entered into a brief engagement with Timur at the Euphrates in 1394, but Timur withdrew during that episode. That year, he managed to dispatch Aktay to Upper Egypt to suppress an Arab uprising. Set individual study goals and earn points reaching them. [92] In Cairo, Barquq's loyalists took over the citadel and arrested as-Salih Hajji. [100], Barsbay pursued an economic policy of establishing state monopolies over the lucrative trade with Europe, particularly regarding spices, to the chagrin of the civilian merchants of the sultanate. [131] Many Coptic Christians decided to convert to Islam or at least adopt the outward expressions of Muslim faith to protect their employment, avoid jizyah taxation and avoid official measures against them. They were made of brass or bronze with inlaid decoration, though in the later periods decoration was often engraved rather than inlaid. na'ib as-saltana). Who was the founder of the Mamluk Dynasty? [63] Construction of the hospital, a contrast from his Mamluk predecessors who focused on establishing madrasas, was done to gain the goodwill of the public, create a lasting legacy, and secure his spot in the afterlife. Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan and leader of the Ilkhanate subdivision of the Mongol Empire, was marching through the Middle East. [26] Moreover, an electoral college dominated by the Salihiyyah convened to choose a successor to Turanshah among the Ayyubid emirs, with opinion largely split between an-Nasir Yusuf of Damascus and al-Mughith Umar of al-Karak. The Mamluks were a caste of Turkic and Circassian slave-soldiers within the Medieval Ayyubid Sultanate. [165] To bring further uniformity to the military, Baybars and Qalawun standardized the undefined Ayyubid policies regarding the distribution of iqtaat to emirs. In May 1285, he captured the Marqab fortress and garrisoned it. In 1265, the Mamluks launched an invasion of northern Makuria, and forced the Nubian king to become a vassal of the Mamluks. [38], While various mamluk factions competed for control of Egypt and Syria, the Mongols under the command of Hulagu Khan had sacked Baghdad, the intellectual and spiritual center of the Islamic world, in 1258, and proceeded westward, capturing Aleppo and Damascus. [171] Every agricultural commodity was taxed by the state, with the sultan's treasury taking the largest share of the revenues; emirs and major private brokers followed. Muhammad Ali took advantage of Al-Alfi's death to try to assert authority over the Bedouins. How did Sultaness Shajar al-Durr solidify her rule? Their presence has had an influence and an impact on the people and customs. Before they established their official Sultanate, many Mamluks functioned in administrative and governing positions in the Ayyubid Sultanate. The main source of popular hostility was resentment at the privileged positions many Christians held in the Mamluk bureaucracy. The sultanate then experienced a long period of stability and prosperity during the third reign of al-Nasir Muhammad (r. 12931294, 12991309, 13101341), before giving way to the internal strife characterizing the succession of his sons, when real power was held by senior emirs. One Mamluk, Al-Alfi was reported by al-Jabarti to marry Bedouin women many times, sending those back he did not like and keeping those that pleased him. [53], An-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of his descendants to the throne in a period marked by political instability. Bank of Alexandria. [119] In addition, there was a significant minority of Coptic Christians. After so many other cities were destroyed by the Mongols, Cairo became possibly the greatest city in Afro-Eurasia by the end of the 13th century. Afterward, he purged and/or arrested the Mu'izziyah and any Bahri mamluks he could locate in Egypt in a bid to eliminate dissent towards his rule. [101] The second expedition was against the Aq Qoyonlu capital of Amid, which ended with the Aq Qoyonlu recognizing Mamluk suzerainty. [178] The Mamluks effectively put an end to this tendency, with the exception of some areas, namely in Mount Lebanon, where longtime Druze iqta holders, who became part of the halqa, were able to resist the abolition of their hereditary iqtaat.

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