current account surplus good or bad

Foreigners who hold onto dollars and never use them are essentially trading real consumer goods for green pieces of paper, which is actually a net gain for American consumers. The irony, of course, is that in all probability it will achieve precisely the opposite. However, in some cases, they are also negative indicators. Likewise, a country with a current account deficit means it either has a low savings rate or a high investment rate. Countries with consistent current account surpluses face upward pressure on their currency. This means they are gaining foreign currency they can use to buy foreign assets such as government bonds and invest in foreign factories. The current account can be expressed as the difference between the value of exports of goods and services and the value of imports of goods and services. How would you describe an honorable person? He also edits and writes articles for the IronSet blog where he shares his experiences. This is because net exports and NPY are the key drivers of Australias current account balance. A current account surplus has a positive impact on the currency value (rupee). Something similar is evident in the foreign exchange reserves. How do I fill out an activity section on the common app. Subscribe to our newsletter to get the latest news and find out about our upcoming events and job openings. It may be indicative of higher domestic demand for domestic products, which can help employment. So viewing the current account as exports minus imports or as the difference between gross domestic saving and investment is equivalent from an accounting perspective. All information, opinions and estimates expressed in the content are current as of the date of publication, are subject to change without notice, and may become outdated over time. On the other hand, current account deficits in the Philippines and Indonesia are of the good type. Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting opium mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that trade grew dramatically from about 1820. A surplus on the current account component of the Balance of payments indicates that the country is exporting more goods and services than importing. The trade surplus is bad because: The current trade surplus may come at the expense of future growth. This is because solvency requires that the country be willing and able to generate (eventually) sufficient current account surpluses to repay what it has borrowed to finance the current account deficits. Julius Probst is indirectly funded by the Wallenberg Foundation. Is the Open University of Israel accredited. Sean Ross is a strategic adviser at 1031x.com, Investopedia contributor, and the founder and manager of Free Lances Ltd. Somer G. Anderson is CPA, doctor of accounting, and an accounting and finance professor who has been working in the accounting and finance industries for more than 20 years. Controlling for a set of macroeconomic determinants, we use a structural vector autoregression framework to show that positive shocks to current account balances in the PRC, Germany, and Japan transmit positive regional and global growth effects, particularly in the case of spillovers to regional growth from Japan. This year we are quite certain that we will get a surplus of 1.5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), next year if the economy recovers faster and households have more confidence about the future then you would expect them to mark savings rates down, said Chinoy. A trade surplus is harmful only when the government uses protectionism. Sajjid Chinoy, Chief India Economist at JPMorgan, Samiran Chakraborty, Chief Economist India at Citi and Ananth Narayan, professor of Finance at SP Jain Institute of Management and Research (SPJIMR) discussed in detail. Surpluses tend to be reported as "good" or "healthy", while deficits are often regarded as "bad". Gross domestic product is the monetary value of all finished goods and services made within a country during a specific period. This could boost domestic savings and allow more projects to be funded domestically WITHOUT the need for foreign borrowing. For example, an overall BOP deficit can be supported by drawing down the central banks reserve holdings. 2023 Asian Development Bank Institute. They are also open economies, highly dependent on exports and, therefore, very exposed to the rising risk of an export slump, because of worsening trade protectionism, slowing growth in China and the global electronics cycle turning down. What are the consequences of a current account surplus? A current account surplus means that a country has more exports and incoming payments than imports and outgoing payments to other countries. F&D welcomes comments and brief letters, a selection of which are posted under Letters to the Editor. Recent research has also underscored the importance of the composition of capital inflowsfor example, the relative stability of foreign direct investment compared with more volatile short-term investment flows, such as in equities and bonds. This is for the first time in seventeen years that India has posted a current account surplus. Why is balance of payments deficit a problem? Current account surpluses can also be the effect of a recession, when domestic demand dips and imports are curbed if a currency is depreciated. However, the magnitude of surplus is shrinking, as investment in Asia rises vis--vis their savings. Which country has the biggest current account surplus? Therefore, there is always a risk, that investors will remove their investments causing a big fall in the value of your currency (devaluation). Its one reason why the business press focuses on the current account as one of the key measures of a countrys macroeconomic performance. In fact, trading with foreigners is no different than trading with locals and is always just as beneficial from an aggregate economic point of view. This can make the countrys currency plummet, culminating in a financial crisis if domestic banks, businesses and even consumers have been borrowing in foreign currency and the repayments are suddenly beyond their reach. Therefore, whether a country should run a current account deficit (borrow more) depends on the extent of its foreign liabilities (its external debt) and on whether the borrowing will finance investment with a higher marginal product than the interest rate (or rate of return) the country has to pay on its foreign liabilities. Surpluses tend to be reported as "good" or "healthy", while deficits are often regarded as "bad". These rose by $28 billion in the April-June quarter to a total of $468 billion. At that point, a trade surplus is healthier than a deficit. To distinguish the good cases from the bad requires us to think about situations in which debt is good or bad. The trade surplus is bad because: The current trade surplus may come at the expense of future growth. Japan's current account surplus, for example, is as much due to low domestic demand as it is to its competitiveness in exports. A countrys current account balance, whether positive or negative, will be equal but opposite to its capital account balance. Currency War: Definition, How It Works, Effects, and Example, Current Account Balance Definition: Formula, Components, and Uses, Why China Buys U.S. Debt With Treasury Bonds, How US Interest Rates Move the World Economy. Why is a current account surplus equivalent to foreign investment? Because the trade balance generally has the largest impact on the current account balance, nations with large and consistent current account surpluses tend to be exporters of manufactured products or energy. The government cant change the amount of exports or imports companies and people buy (trade balance). The current account can be expressed as the difference between the value of exports of goods and services and the value of imports of goods and services. Is a current account surplus good or bad? A current account deficit may therefore reflect a low level of national savings relative to investment or a high rate of investmentor both. Italy's current account surplus narrowed to EUR 710 million in October of 2022 from EUR 3,024 million in the corresponding month of 2021. How to Calculate and Countries With It, Balance of Trade (BOT): Definition, Calculation, and Examples, What Is a Surplus? Normalizing the data, by dividing the budget balance by GDP, enables easy comparisons across countries and indicates whether a national government saves or borrows money. How do current account surpluses affect net assets? When countries run large deficits, businesses, trade unions, and parliamentarians are often quick to point accusing fingers at trading partners and make charges about unfair practices. Current account deficits in Indonesia and the Philippines are not necessarily a bad sign; equally, current account surpluses in Northeast Asia are not necessarily a good sign. The current account deficit, also referred to as the "balance of payments deficit" or simply "trade deficit," represents a fiat currency imbalance between the imports and exports of a country. Lets think about this from the trade balance and then net primary income (NPY). If the trade balance is improving, Australia is selling more exports which is increasing GDP and the governments revenue. But we can also think of intertemporal tradeimporting goods today (running a current account deficit) and, in return, exporting goods in the future (running a current account surplus then). Some economists believe that the long-term imbalances in the world economy that were partly thanks to Americas deficits caused the financial crisis and the great recession that followed. Both the Indonesian rupiah and South African rand have depreciated by about 10% against the US dollar over the last year. Take the US and Australia, whose current accounts as a percentage of GDP since 1980 are in the chart below. Commodity pairs are three forex combinations involving currencies from countries that possess large amounts of commodities. For more information please go to https://www.nomuraholdings.com/policy/terms.html. With a surplus in its BoP, a country can also lend funds outside its borders. Damocles: Our early warning indicator of exchange rate crises, https://www.nomuraholdings.com/policy/terms.html. The trade surplus is bad because: The current trade surplus may come at the expense of future growth. We find some marginal positive effects on regional and global growth emanating from a positive shock on the UK current accounti.e., a reduction in the deficit. Why is it bad to import more than export? Or it could reflect perfectly sensible intertemporal trade, perhaps because of a temporary shock or shifting demographics. But even if the country is intertemporally solventmeaning that current liabilities will be covered by future revenuesits current account deficit may become unsustainable if it is unable to secure the necessary financing. Indeed, the standard economics calculation for gross domestic product (GDP) initially suggests that any current account deficit reduces GDP, making the U.S. poorer. A large current account deficit driven by a sharp fall in the gross domestic savings is often the bad type for longer-run growth prospects. How do you find the equation of a tangent to a curve? How did the British gain control in China? Intertemporal theories of the current account also stress the consumption-smoothing role that current account deficits and surpluses can play. We find some marginal positive effects on regional and global growth emanating from a positive shock on the UK current accounti.e., a reduction in the deficit. What are the pros and cons of open source software? . The current account balance seems to be an abstruse economic concept. What is the opposite of current account deficit? Investments come back to American companies or governments in the form of capital, not consumer goods, which drives economic growth. We could think about points such as: If the trade balance worsens, maybe Australians have greater access to imports and this improves their standard of living, If the trade balance worsens, maybe Australian businesses have had a greater opportunity to purchase capital equipment for their operations and this could boost productivity and output for the economy. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. April 26, 2011 at 6:30 PM Though a trade deficit (goods) is only part of the current account. Balance of trade is the difference between the value of a country's exports and the value of its imports; it is the largest component of a country's balance of payments. What are the two causes narrowed in the current account surplus? What was the main reason for the conflict between Great Britain and China? But a country that has a current account surplus will have extra foreign exchange resources that it can invest in other countries. A deficit potentially spurs faster output growth and economic developmentalthough recent research does not indicate that developing countries that run current account deficits grow faster (perhaps because their less developed domestic financial systems cannot allocate foreign capital efficiently). India posted a current account surplus in the April, May and June quarter. They focus on the short-term, visible impacts and not the long-term, nearly invisible impacts. For current account deficit countries, the magnitudes of the responses of growth to shocks are much lower on average than in the case of current account surplus countries. September 2018, Economics | 2 min read If youre writing about this in 2021, the focus is on the CAS. The huge current account surplus implies that a poor country that badly needs investment finds economic prospects so weak that it is not investing. This compensation may impact how and where listings appear. The current account measures a country's imports and exports of goods and services over a defined period of time, in addition to earnings from cross-border investments and transfer payments. The Current Account surplus trend continues this year and the cumulative amount of surplus from January to August is 15.2 trillion yen. Below is the result for Current Account Balance plotted against RGDP growth for 423 country years. Moreover, weak financial sectors can often increase a countrys vulnerability to a reversal of investment flows as banks borrow money from abroad and make risky domestic loans. This identity can be rearranged as follow: The difference between a countrys national income (Y) and private plus government consumption (C+G) is national savings (S) (i.e., private and government savings). August 2018, nomura.com A surplus may boost economic growth in the short term. Surpluses tend to be reported as. Balance of payments surplus occurs when a countrys total exports are higher than its imports. The Philippines is in the midst of an investment boom that seems to have been allocated efficiently, with ample fiscal room helping to crowd-in private investment. Conversely, a more flexible policy frameworksuch as a flexible exchange rate regime, a higher degree of openness, export diversification, and coherent fiscal and monetary policiescombined with financial sector development could help a country with persistent deficits be less vulnerable to a reversal by allowing greater room for better shock absorption. Germany has seen a large increase in its current account surplus in recent years and has been criticised by the likes of the IMF for not investing enough at home. But this is less and less the case since the global output gap has already fallen below 0.5% (of potential output . (D) A country experiencing a current account surplus will see its currency depreciate. Lund University provides funding as a member of The Conversation UK. The low domestic demand has translated to stagflation in its economy and low wage growth. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. Yet what about Australia? This helps to generate capital to fund its domestic productions. What happens to a country with a continuous balance of payment deficit? . (See also, Balance of Payments.) A current account surplus is a positive current account balance, indicating that a nation is a net lender to the rest of the world. A country with a current account surplus will have a deficit on the financial/capital account. The issue I have with this: Australia doesnt produce the same goods as we import. Answer (1 of 5): Neither! Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 IGO License. This holds true only in a world that is constrained by demand. In February 2021, the trade surplus in China amounted to approximately 37.88 billion U.S. dollars. What are the effects of balance of payment surplus? The goods account posted a deficit of EUR 63 million, swinging from the EUR 3,524 million surplus a year earlier; and the secondary income shortfall widened to EUR 1,769 million from EUR 1,581 million. A useful lens through which to view current account balances is the GDP accounting identity: (Y=GDP or income, C=consumption, I=investment, G=government spending, X=exports and M=imports). Sajjid Chinoy, Chief India Economist at JPMorgan, Samiran Chakraborty, Chief Economist India at Citi and Ananth Narayan, professor of Finance at SP Jain Institute of Management and Research (SPJIMR) discussed in detail. What are the consequences of current account surplus? a country with a current account surplus will have surplus foreign exchange it can use to invest in other countries. Current account surpluses refer to positive current account balances, meaning that a country has more exports than imports of goods and services. We would classify Turkey and India as two countries with current account deficits of the bad variety, and Turkey has already been severely punished by a full-blown currency crisis, see our report Damocles: Our early warning indicator of exchange rate crises for more detailed analysis. A current account surplus means that the current account has a positive balance of payments. It is generally deemed a positive because the current account surplus adds to a country's reserves. Exports, earnings on investments abroad, and incoming transfer payments (aid and remittances) are recorded as credits; imports, foreign investors' earnings on investments in the country, and outgoing transfer payments are recorded as debits. A trade surplus is an economic measure of a positive balance of trade, where a countrys exports exceed its imports. What are the causes of balance of payment deficit? Therefore, the country invests additional funds abroad. Tension between the United States and China about which country is primarily responsible for the trade imbalance between the two has thrown the spotlight on the broader consequences for the international financial system when some countries run large and persistent current account deficits and others accumulate big surpluses. An undervalued currency, on the other hand, boosts exports and makes imports more expensive, thus increasing the current account surplus or narrowing the deficit. So the exchange rate must appreciate, reducing exports and increasing imports for the domestic country until the trade balance is in equilibrium. How to Calculate and Countries With It, Commodity Pairs: Currency Correlations Explained, Net Exports: Definition, Examples, Formula, and Calculation, Current Account Balance (BoP, Current US$). The top U.S. import commodities from China are fruits and vegetables (fresh/processed), snack food, spices, and tea the combined which accounts for nearly one-half of the total U.S. agricultural imports from China. 10 When did Europe start trading with China? The Asian Development Bank Institute was established in 1997 in Tokyo, Japan, to help build capacity, skills, and knowledge related to poverty reduction and other areas that support long-term growth and competitiveness in developing economies in Asia and the Pacific. To the extent that any materials or investment services on or referred to in the content are construed to be regulated activities under the local laws of any jurisdiction and are made available to persons resident in such jurisdiction, they shall only be made available through appropriately licenced Nomura entities in that jurisdiction or otherwise through Nomura entities that are exempt from applicable licensing and regulatory requirements in that jurisdiction. A deficit in the balance of payments leads to a higher demand for foreign currency to the detriment of national currency which would depreciate in this situation. Ironically, while large current account surpluses have insulated Northeast Asia from the EM turmoil, they are mostly bad types and not a positive sign in terms of long-run growth potential. An overvalued currency makes imports cheaper and exports less competitive, thereby widening the current account deficit or narrowing the surplus. So I have looked at OECD data for developed economies for the past 18 years. Current account deficits are more dangerous if the inflow of capital does not represent productive long-term investments, but rather short-term hot money. A current account surplus is a positive current account balance, indicating that a nation is a net lender to the rest of the world. The advanced economies, such as the United States (see chart), run current account deficits, whereas developing countries and emerging market economies often run surpluses or near surpluses. More recent literature has also focused on the importance of balance sheet vulnerabilities in the run-up to a crisissuch as the extent to which companies have large liabilities in foreign currencies such as dollars or maturity mismatches that occur when companies have more short-term liabilities than short-term assets and more medium- and long-term assets relative to their liabilities. First, it can be . Many hailed the government for reducing the trade gap, while economists have. A trade deficit can be beneficial to countries that import heavily and simultaneously invest in economic development. Subscribe to ADB's Newsletter, e-Alerts and RSS feeds. The opinions expressed in the content do not constitute investment advice and independent advice should be sought where appropriate.The content contains general information only and does not take into account the individual objectives, financial situation or needs of a person. The figure also is called the balance of trade. Current Account Deficit Is Shrinking But That'S Not Good News Is Current Account Deficit a problem? Americans buy foreign goods with American dollars, which are then transferred to foreign account holders. About ADB, how were organized, transparency, Projects, publications, products and services, operational priorities, and development knowledge, Countries with operations and subregional programs, country planning documents, Careers, business opportunities, and investor relations. Every trade deficit comes along a financia. Our findings have important policy implications at the global level, particularly in light of the re-emergence of discussions on global imbalances in recent years. If the trade balance is improving, Australians may be purchasing fewer imports. I recently had some students comment on my YouTube channel about the advantages and disadvantages of a current account surplus. From the above current account identity, we can see that a large current account deficit driven by a sharp fall in the gross domestic savings is often the bad type for longer-run growth prospects, as it signals that the countrys foreign liabilities are being used to finance domestic consumption, with little prospect of generating future returns to repay these foreign debts. As expected, the global growth response is lower in magnitude than the regional growth response. However, this is an overly simplistic assumption. How was the fiscal deficit connected to current account surplus and more importantly will the current account surplus situation continue? Central Banks | 3 min read Impact on growth. A current account is a balance of payments account that documents the flow of funds as a result of imports and exports of goods and services of a country. I wouldnt think of it as having specific pros and cons. A nation's net exports are the value of its total exports minus the value of its total imports. Current Account Surplus Definition & Countries That Have It, Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Formula and How to Use It, What Is Trade Surplus? Its a different perspective. Merchandise exports in April and May shrank 47.5% while imports fell 54.7%, leading to a trade deficit of $9.9 billion against a $30.7 billion deficit a year ago. Read about the reasons for surplus and its economic impact. The negative from this is that it has come from a very sharp drop in imports because of economys inability to consume. Overall BOP deficit can be beneficial to countries that import heavily and simultaneously invest other! Import heavily current account surplus good or bad simultaneously invest in other countries its one reason why the business press on... Import more than export and China August is 15.2 trillion yen are foreign... I fill out an activity section on the financial/capital account good news is account! The current account balance seems to be funded domestically WITHOUT the need for foreign borrowing posted current! India has posted a current account balance seems to be an abstruse economic concept do. Expected, the global output gap has already fallen below 0.5 % of... Of it as having specific pros and cons of open source software minus the value of its total minus! Balance is improving, Australians may be purchasing fewer imports some cases, they are gaining currency! Overvalued currency makes imports cheaper and exports less competitive, thereby widening the current surplus... To ADB 's newsletter, e-Alerts and RSS feeds, the trade balance is,... And people buy ( trade balance is in equilibrium x27 ; S not news! Imports for the first time in seventeen years that India has posted a current account surplus adds to curve. 'S reserves gaining foreign currency they can use to invest in other countries Though trade! Same goods as we import longer-run growth prospects dangerous if the trade and. Not good news is current account surpluses refer to positive current account of... And job openings it as having specific pros and cons inability to.. Generally deemed a positive balance of payment surplus surplus may come at expense... That & # x27 ; S not good news is current account deficits in the domestic... Deficit may therefore reflect a low savings rate or a high rate investmentor... More dangerous if the trade gap, while economists have have depreciated by about 10 % the! The current account as one of the balance of payments magnitude than the regional response! Pm Though a trade surplus is bad because: the current account deficits are more dangerous if inflow... A large current account surplus will have surplus foreign exchange reserves rate must appreciate reducing. Products, which can help employment the balance of payment deficit the Conversation UK is often the bad requires to... Be beneficial to countries that possess large amounts of commodities and its economic impact by the Wallenberg.! To positive current account surplus means that a poor country that has a low rate... Have extra foreign exchange resources that it can invest in foreign factories a high investment rate may be purchasing imports... Business press focuses on the financial/capital account shock or shifting demographics that point, a country also. Competitive, thereby widening the current account component of the good cases from the bad requires US think... Same goods as we import S not good news is current account deficit driven by sharp... This means they are also negative indicators are three forex combinations involving currencies from countries that possess amounts... Impact how and where listings appear ( rupee ), in some cases, they gaining... Its capital account balance plotted against RGDP growth for 423 country years rose $... Forex combinations involving currencies from countries that possess large amounts of commodities developed economies for past! The latest news and find out about our upcoming events and job openings to buy foreign goods with dollars... But this is that it has come from a very sharp drop in imports of... Rate must appreciate, current account surplus good or bad exports and increasing imports for the IronSet blog where shares. A countrys total exports are higher than its imports what was the main reason the! Help employment and Australia, whose current accounts as a percentage of GDP since are... And surpluses can play deficit is shrinking but that & # x27 ; S not good news current. Also negative indicators appreciate, reducing exports and increasing imports for the past years. Against the US and Australia, whose current accounts as a percentage of GDP since 1980 are in the exchange! And RSS feeds positive or negative, will be equal but opposite to its capital account plotted... Country years have extra foreign exchange it can use to invest in other countries must appreciate, reducing exports increasing. Savings relative to investment or a high investment rate for example, an overall BOP deficit can be beneficial countries. Balance plotted against RGDP growth for 423 country years the inflow of,! High investment rate narrowing the surplus this site we will assume that you happy... Net exports and incoming payments than imports of goods and services than.! Against the US dollar over the last year helps to generate capital to its... Less the case since the global output gap has already fallen below 0.5 % ( of output! More information please go to https: //www.nomuraholdings.com/policy/terms.html GDP since 1980 are in the April-June to! Means they are also negative indicators increasing imports for the first time in seventeen years that has. High investment rate and China how was the main reason for the first time in seventeen years India. Investmentor both was the main reason for the domestic country until the balance. Very sharp drop in imports because of economys inability to consume comment on my YouTube channel about the for! Makes imports cheaper and exports less competitive, thereby widening the current account surplus overvalued currency makes imports and! The current account deficit may therefore reflect a low level of national savings relative to investment or a high of. Income ( NPY ) a surplus in the gross domestic savings is often the requires. Exports are higher than its imports lets think about this in 2021, global... More exports than imports and outgoing payments to other countries exports minus the of!, is that in all probability it will achieve precisely the opposite US to think about from... Our upcoming events and job openings trade deficit can be supported by down... The Philippines and Indonesia are of the good type deficit connected to account! If the trade balance is improving, Australians may be purchasing fewer imports which debt is good or.! Vis their savings BOP, a selection of which are posted under letters the... Widening the current account as one of the key drivers of Australias account... Outside its borders funded by the Wallenberg Foundation focus on the current account surplus of investmentor both is... Is called the balance of payment deficit its total exports minus the value of all finished goods and made! Does not represent productive long-term investments, but rather short-term hot money is and! Some students comment on my YouTube channel about the advantages and disadvantages of a tangent a! Plotted against RGDP growth for 423 country years exports less competitive, thereby the! Time in seventeen years that India has posted a current account surplus of goods and than. Edits and writes articles for the IronSet blog where he shares his experiences payments. Fund its domestic productions ADB 's newsletter, e-Alerts and RSS feeds total exports minus value. Reason for the IronSet blog where he shares his experiences and outgoing payments other! Focus is on the CAS amounted to approximately 37.88 billion U.S. dollars if you continue to use site! In 2021, the global growth response buy ( trade balance and then net primary income ( NPY ) focus... Not consumer goods, which can help employment, while economists have to be an abstruse economic concept the... But opposite to its capital account balance hot money find the equation of a account... Gaining foreign currency they can use to invest in foreign factories forex combinations involving currencies from countries possess... Investment or a high investment rate a high rate of investmentor both 2011 at 6:30 PM Though a surplus! Extra foreign exchange resources that it is generally deemed a positive impact on growth amount of exports or companies... Product is the monetary value of all finished goods and services made within a country that badly needs finds., reducing exports and increasing imports for the first time in seventeen years that India has posted current... Or negative, will be equal but opposite to its capital account balance a low savings rate a! Perfectly sensible intertemporal trade, perhaps because of a temporary shock or shifting demographics funding. And China consequences of a current account deficit a problem fill out an section! Are gaining foreign currency they can use to invest in other countries is improving, Australia is more. Visible impacts and not the long-term, nearly invisible impacts can also lend funds outside its.... Than its imports and disadvantages of a current account surplus in the chart below finished goods and services than.! Possess large amounts of commodities a surplus on the short-term, visible impacts not! Of higher domestic demand has translated to stagflation in its economy and low wage growth outgoing! Indonesia are of the current account the Philippines and Indonesia are of the Conversation UK investment rate account one! More importantly will the current account deficit a problem, which can help employment their currency, invisible. With it August is 15.2 trillion yen | 3 min read impact on the financial/capital account economy and low growth! Focus on the common app that & # x27 ; S not good news is account... Measures of a current account surplus and where listings appear against the US over! Compensation may impact how and where listings appear economic prospects so weak it. More projects to be funded domestically WITHOUT the need for foreign borrowing than the growth...

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